April 24th, 2008
Task-Based Learning: A Review
Written by Bilgen TOSUN
1. HISTORICAL POSITION OF TASK-BASED LEARNING
As Willis(1996) suggests before eighties the P.P.P. model of language teaching is the traditional way of learning- teaching activity. It is based on presentation before practice and in the end of this activity the outcome is called as performance(Presentation Practice Performance). Here in the pace of presentation a syllabus of structures, considering fluent and accurate performance under control is used. Therefore in the Task Based Learning the order of these activities or techniques has changed.
According to Willis (1996) that change is first suggested by Prabhu in his Communicative Teaching Project in Bangalore including both primary and secondary schools in 1987. On the other hand Richards& Rodgers (1986) adds two more names as Beretta and Davies in 1985 and The Malaysian Communicational Syllabus which dates back to1975.
Using tasks for teaching becomes popular in second language acquisition to develop pedagogical applicants and Long, Crookes 1993 are given as example.
On the other hand the birth of it dates back to 1950’s according to the article of Richards & Rodgers (1986:224). It is stated as;
“It first appeared in the vacational training practice of the 1950’s. Task focused here first derived from training design concerns of the military regarding new military technologies and occurational specialties of the period. Task analysis initially focused on solo psyhometer tasks for which little communication or collaboration was involved”
No matter what is said about it; it is clear that T.B.L. has gained importance in the field of methodology and over a period of time it has been developed step by step. Willis(96) implies that in many teaching environments not only in multi-lingual but also in the mono-lingual classes there happens a work together with the students aged fourteen and upwards in T.B.L.
2. RATIONALE
2.1. DEFINITION OF TASK BASED LEARNING
Before studying theories, defining the term “task” should be better. The answers of : “What does “task” mean in Task Based Learning?” are those according to some of it’s prominents. (Ellis2003: 4)
According to Long (1985)
“A task is ‘ a piece of work undertaken for oneself or for others, freely or for some reward. Thus, examples of tasks include painting a fence, dressing a child, filling out a form, buying a pair of shoes, making an airline reservation, borrowing a library book, taking a driving te, typing a letter, weighing a patient, sorting letters, taking a hotel reservation, writing a cheque, finding a street destination, and helping someone across a road.
In other words, by “task” is meant the hundred an done things people do in everyday life, at work, at play, and in between. “Tasks” are the things people will tell you they do if you ask them and they are not applied linguists’.”
According to Prabhu (1987):
“A task is ‘an activity which required lerners to arrive at an outcome from given information through some process of thought, and which allowed teachers to control and regulate that process’.”
According to Bygate, Skehan, and Swain (2001):
” ‘A task is an activity which requires learners to use language, with emphasis on meaning, to attain an objective.’”
In her book Willis (1996: 54) also states the definition of “task” not only as what is “task” but also what is not “task”. She says: “Tasks do not include activities which involve language used for practice or display, such as ‘Describe the picture using the words and phrases from the list below’ or ‘Ask your partner if he likes the food listed here using the forms Do you like…? Yes,I do/No I don’t’ where there is no outcome or purpose other than practice of pre-specified language.” She also thinks that many role play situations do not have any actual outcome for students to achieve other than to enact their roles.
After reading many definition what I have understood by task is, all these activities (stated in many definitions by the authorities) where the target language is used by the learner for a communicative purpose in order to achieve and outcome.
2.2. STEPS OF A TASK
Although recommendations of each researchers have some little differences between each other in general the steps of task is classified as; pre-task, task and language focus.
2.2.1. Pre-Task: As it is easily understood from its name pre-task is the head of the activity. The topic and task are introduced here. At this step teacher is the guide. She gives the key note and goal of the task. According to Richards& Rodgers (1986), learners are made to think on the topic, bring out the vocabulary; make relationship between language and assumption of the topic.
To make students issue easier teacher gives the words they would use but here what is important that; there is no teaching something new. In order to give an example of the activity, if necessary, students can sometimes be given a reading or listening.
2.2.2. Task: Task cycle can be considered as the time learners getting on the stage because they have chance to perform, produce whatever they know. By Richards& Rodgers (1986) it is explained as a response to the pre-task activity such as reading a text, hearing a recording
Learners work in pairs or group in their target language. They use the target language spontaneously of which is the aim of task cycle. At that moment teacher tries to motivate them to use the target language. More than being a guide teacher is the helper because her aim is to make them produce, for this reason she does not intervene to correct errors of form. As Willis suggests (1996); if mistake blocks the understanding and truth value she takes notes and brings them up without giving the names of the students made mistake. “Never give unasked for advice.”(Finch, 1999: 184)
2.2.3. Language Focus: The outcome of the activity takes place at that moment. Because the real world brought into the classroom becomes some new information about the target language since learners see what they have learnt via some activities. To make learners understand this, teacher gets them sometimes to find a word or a phrase, read, underline, classify the focus which can be a verb tense or an adjective and so on (Willis, 1996: 57). Teacher is the conductor of the classroom because here again she makes learners start and continue on their own. At that time of course she answers all the questions students have. In the end she sums the activity up and helps learners see what they have learnt.
2.3. VARIETIES OF TASK
As far as I read (Richards& Rodgers, 1986) I observe that prominents of the subject have suggested two different kinds of varieties in terms of classroom interaction that occurs in task accomplishment (e.g: Pica, Kanagy, Falodun) and activities (e.g: Willis)
According to Pica, Kanagy and Falodun classification of tasks are like that:(R&R, 1986: 234)
“1. Jigsaw tasks: Learners combine pieces to form up the whole. For example, combining a separated story.
2. Information-gap tasks: two different students or groups having a part that the other does not. They try to find out what they do not have.
3. Problem-solving tasks: Students are given a problem and asked to solve it.
4. Decision making tasks: Students are given a problem and asked to choose an option out of the givens.
5. Opinion exchange tasks: No matter they reach an agreement they are expected to discuss their idea on the topic given.”
The other type of task classification is that (e.g:Willis)
Listing tasks: generates a lot of talk and the process involved are brainstorming (learners draw on their knowledge and experience) and fact finding (learners find things out by asking each other or referring to books. The outcome is going to be a completed list of a draft)
Ordering and sorting: It has four main steps;
a- sequencing items, actions or events
b- ranking items according to personal values or specified criteria
c- categorizing items under given headings
d- classifying items in different ways where the categories are not given
Problem solving: Same as what Pica, Kanagy and Falodun have suggested. It will make learners intellectual powers work.
Sharing personal experience: Learners are encouraged to talk about themselves of which provides real-close conversation.
Creative tasks: It is also considered as a Project by Willis (1996). To sort, order, compare, solve a problem learners come together. It can be an out of classroom activity too.
Closed and open tasks: If the goal is strictly limited and highly structured it is a closed task, considering close tasks open tasks are more loosely structured with less specific goals.
2.4. THEORY OF LEARNING
Since being based on the use of tasks as the core unit of planning and instruction in language teaching it involves real communication, meaningfulness for the sake of learning process.
During learning activity; learners are exposed to produce. For this reason, basic elements become purposeful activities and tasks emphasizing communication and meaning.
When reading about Task Based Learning I observe these key words; “communication, purposeful activities, process” as the theory of learning. Because, as Richards&Rodgers (1986) suggests learners learn by interacting communicatively and purposefully. Here the focus is on process but production should not be ignored. Because production is important for the students communicative competence. Communicative competence includes linguistic, socio-linguistic, discoursal and strategic competence. As Krashen suggests linguistic-sociolinguistic competence can be acquired with comprehensible input. Discoursal competence is acquired through experiencing within a group and strategic competence is understanding during the interaction to achieve task.
What makes T.B.L. different is that, teacher tries not to correct every mistake. If the truth value is blocked without calling the names of the students she corrects the mistake. The more you produce the beter you learn. In order to produce you should not be afraid of mistakes. I think that is preferred to make students feel confident to produce and that makes learners become risk-takers. That makes task activity and achievement motivational.
By taking risks learners are able to develop their both input and output which is necessary for language acquisition. According to his hypothesis Krashen believes input has a very important place in affective learning. In each class learner shoul move a step and gradually develop his input that of idea is called as “input hypothesis”(i+1).
On the other hand, for some others productive output and not merely input is also critical for adequate second language development.
At this point “tasks” are considered to provide full opportunity for both input and output requirements which are believed to be key processes in language learning(Richards&Rodgers,1986: 228).The time learners find task and language focus difficult the teacher can negotiate the difficulty. Because here the aim is to achieve a process and if teacher feels the difficulty for particlar pedagogical purpose then she can make things easier.
2.5. THEORY OF LANGUAGE
The idea of T.B.L. is getting process and it is close to the communicativeness. That of it’s principle makes me believe that, T.B.L. consideres language just as a tool to communicate. What I mean here is, language is primarily a means of making meaning. They focus on the role of meaning in language use. On the other hand as suggested by Richards and Rodgers(1986) to communicate of course we use structure. For this reason, structural,functional and interactional models of language are advocated. This shows that some different roles as “goal” have been given to the “tasks” for example; educational goals with didactic function, social goals just to participate. To Foster and Skehan there are three way functional distinction of tasks which are; personal, narrative and decision making tasks.(Richards&Rodgers,1986:227)
Since most of tasks proposed within T.B.L.. involve conversation Richards&Rodgers(1986) say that the central focus of language and the keystone of language acquisition is the”conversation”. Unconsciously, it draws attention on the vocabulary, because to communicate, to use the structure you need to know vocabulary.
2.6. ROLE OF THE TEACHER
As I have mentioned considering the historical development of teaching a foreign language; there has been a great change in the role of the teacher. Teacher is not considered as an authority in modern teaching philosophy I think. T.B.L. can be taken as a very important step for this change. Because, also in T.B.L. the role of the teacher has changed a lot.
Of course teacher is responsible for the education but he is not considered as the only responsible one. As being suggested by Richards&Rodgers(1986) T.B.L. values process so teacher has a very important responsibility. Because she’s in charge of the process of his learners. For this reason, according to Willis(1996) she should select and order tasks carefully in order to reach his goals.
As we mentioned in our presentation, teacher should be well prepared . Because any task may be necessary at anytime; learner can ask anything during task cycle. Those of the facts give teacher the roles of a guide at pre-task that she warms up and an organizer at task level that necessitates arranging activity. Also for the last cycle; focusing on form teacher should be well prepared.
2.7. ROLE OF THE LEARNER
Teachers’ dominance authority turns into teachers’ guiding; because teacher centered learning (P.P.P.) becomes learner centered(T.B.L.). As Dawson (2002) says T.B.L draws attention on the task and make learner active during his learning process of which makes T.B.L. different from it’s previous, I think. That of difference exchanges the position of the learner. Learner becomes the participant and the member of his group; that makes him to participate class activities. During task cycle learner is responsible for practice. What makes T.B.L. beautiful is the fact that he knows he participates a real communication. Since being motivated by the teacher , he becomes a risk taker. Using language helps him to develop his abilities gradually.
At pre-task cycle more than producing, learners are made to think on the topic in order to be active at task cycle (Richards&Rodgers,1986: 238). They are only expected to understand what is going on for this reason the teacher makes the issue easier. Since they have chance to perform; learners are expected to produce whatever they know. And that makes them use the target language spontaneously to communicate.
2.8. ROLE OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL
Especially for the task cycleto instruct properly materials are necessary. Instructional materials play a very important role in T.B.L. For this reason they should not be ignored and they should be chosen quite carefully. According to the activity there may be many different materials. Every teacher can create his materials such as the products of media, things we have in our daily lives. This makes teacher find different tasks and materials for each time.
3. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Nunan suggests (1991) that T.B.L. gives opportunity to the teacher to promote a student-centered learning environment. That makes teacher respect the learners as individuals and wants them to succeed. On the other hand learners have out of class activities and that makes T.B.L. effective. According to Krahnke (1987) T.B.L. is quite satisfactory for E.S.P. teaching. He points out the value of it for the learners who really need to use the language for well-defined purposes. Not only for the learners studying for a specific purpose T.B.L. is advised for the ones who are not accustomed to traditional types of classroom learning such as P.P.P. model. If learning cognitive, cultural and life skills along with the language is needed than T.B.L. is thought to answer this need. To Richards&Rodgers(1986) none of the age groups and backgrounds would have difficulty in performing T.B.L. Because real tasks are given and that makes learning easier for every learner group.
On the other hand all these positives can become negatives in terms of the classroom interaction and learner, teacher quality. While reading on T.B.L. I always asked “Why do not we use it widespread in Turkey?”
The more I read the easier I understand that some of it’s principles depend on the opportunity the teacher has. So I think we should not forget Krahnke’s (1987) reminder that there is a problem of implementing the instruction.
When I evaluate our countries education identity I could not help feeling sad for us. Because we have a problem of qualified teachers of English, even the number of the teachers is not enough. For this reason the first problem arises with teachers. Moreover that of our problem increases with both the instruction, setting and the student. What I want to say, our students have to take on many tasks such as OSS. The anxiety of their future maket hem mechanical people; memorizing everything.
Evaluation would be an other problem for us. As Krahnke (1987: 69) suggests evaluation in T.B.L. requires students to demonstrate their progress via performing task based instruction. As having traditional way of teaching we have discrete-point achievement tests for evaluation.
4. CONCLUSION
Actually, in Turkey, as teachers of English we have chance to find satisfactory boks even on T.B.L. For example the one -Cutting Edge- we used for our demo in the class. Also Dawson (2002) suggests this book to see how they acquaint some of T.B.L.’s principles with tried and tested communicative approaches. But the question is how efficient classes we have; because T.B.L. needs time, energy and material of which we are lack of in Turkey. As teachers we are obliged to cover the given unit by the Ministry of Education. Unfortunately that of the subjects are too much to study in an eight month period if T.B.L. is to be used. Depending on the social level of the location each institution has their own problems to struggle; such as very crowded classes, cosmopolitan student profile from east to west, illiterate parents but T.B.L. requires time, money, high level of knowledge.
In Turkey we have a traditional education profile; we prefer teacher centered education and for this reason T.B.L. can not be performed efficiently. Because we are not good at working on individual and group responsibility.
If we managed to prevent each of these disadvantages; since aiming to help learner process and being learner centered T.B.L. would be amusing. Otherwise, when I consider my obligation the best time I could use T.B.L. is strictly limited.
REFERENCES
CUNNIGHAM Sarah and Peter Moor .(1999), Cutting Edge “Intermediate”. Longman: Harlow, England and Spain.
KRAHNKE, Karl. (1987). Approaches to Syllabus Design for Foreign Language Teaching. London, Sydney, Toronto, Mexico City, New Delhi, Rio de Janerio, Singapore, & Tokyo: Prentice Hall.
LARSEN- FREEMAN, Diane. (1986), Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. USA & Australia: Oxford University Press.
NUNAN, David. (1989), Designing Task for the Communicative Classroom. USA , New York& Australia: Cambridge University Press.
NUNAN, David. (1991), Language Teaching Methodology. New York, London , Toronto, Sydney, Tokyo & Singapore: Prentice Hall.
PRABHU, N. S. (1987), Second Language Pedagogy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
RICHARDS, C. Jack and Thedore S. Rodgers (1986), Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching A description and analysis. Cambridge, New York, Port Chester, Melbourne, Sydney: Cambridge University Press.
RICHARDS, C. Jack & Willy A. Renandya. (2002), Methodology in Language Teaching. USA & Australia: Cambridge University Press.
SKEHAN, Peter. (1998), A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning. Athens, Auckland, Bangogk, Bogota, Bombay, Buenos Aires, Calcuta, Cape Town, Dar es Salaam, Delhi, Florence, Hong Kong, Istanbul, Karachi, Kuala, Madras, Madrid, Melbourne, Mexico City, Nairobi, Paris, Singapore, Taipei, Tokyo & Toronto Warsaw: Oxford University Press.
WILLIS, Jane. (1996), A Framework for Task- Based Learning. London: Longman
ELLIS, Rod. (2003). Task based Language Learning Teaching. New York: Oxford University Press
DAWSON, Nick. (2001). Teaching Tips What is Task-Based Learning? <http://www.longman-elt.com/exams/teachers/tt_tbl.html>
DAWSON, Nick. (2002). Teaching Tips Your Questions and Answers <http://www.longman-elt.com/adult/teachers/qa_ju101.html>
FINCH, Andrew. (1999). “The Task-Based Classroom in Practice” in The Second Pan Asian Conference, Seul. Korea: Andong National University
This article originally appears at the Yıldız technical University website:
http://www.yde.yildiz.edu.tr/uddo/belgeler/inca-btosun-tbl.htm
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