How to write more accurately and improve your grade, by Celia Webb

Fact checking is an important part of writing an accurate article. Meticulous authors do research prior to committing their thoughts to paper. Not all authors are so careful. Editors and readers serve society and themselves well when they read with a judicious eye. Just because a piece is written and printed does not necessarily make it true. The ability to check facts, coupled with an openness to a possible bias on the part of an author, will enable the discernment of truth or distortion.

Editors have a responsibility to fact check before printing an article or book. Some editors do this very well. Others do not. If you are an editor, the tips below could help you produce better articles thereby building a reputation as a reliable source.

Readers could benefit from these tips by being able to ascertain whether what they are reading is actually true, elaborations on truth, or, just plain inaccurate. In these days of information being rapidly accessed on the Internet where anyone can publish anything, it is vital to know how to pick out what is factual information and what is not. Readers should be aware that facts can be twisted or interpreted incorrectly also, that they can be used as the basis to support a poorly reasoned conclusion. So the fact could be correct, but the logic used to support a particular argument could be defective. This article does not address how to pick out faulty logic.

The Process of Fact Checking. Here is a sequence of steps to follow in fact checking. If you are writing for publication or academic purposes, you will want to do the final step of recording what you find. If you are fact checking for your own edification, this step may not be important to you.

a. Read the material.

b. Read the material a second time, marking passages for checking.

c. Write down the claims to check and list keywords and potential resources to research.

d. Do the research.

e. Record results including the source.

Who is the Author?

The first thing to determine is the qualifications of the author. Experts writing in their field may be given credit as more likely to be knowledgeable and accurate. However, the author may harbor a bias. The use of inflammatory language is one overt clue to bias. The use of subtle innuendo is a covert one. Check for degrees, certifications, awards, and years of experience. Next, look for evidence of due diligence by the author. Are sources listed for claims made? Did the author do original research?

Is the Source trustworthy?

In the case of an editor or author, a “source” would be those references used by the author to support his argument. In the case of a reader, “source” also includes the author of the material. Sources should be reliable, knowledgeable, and unbiased in order to be trustworthy. Ask yourself these questions.

a. Is the source reliable?

Each fact used in a publication needs to come from a reliable source. Authors who list their sources help make your research easier because you can check the source directly and you can make a determination whether that source has provided information in the past which turned out to be accurate. The more well-known the institution or research agency which generated the original information, the more likely it is that the information is reliable. Institutions and research agencies not only do primary research, they also tend to do peer reviews of information prior to its release, and many other interested parties carefully scrutinize their work once it has been released.

b. Is the source knowledgeable?

Look for sources which have credentials in the area of expertise from which the claim emanates. For example, in the case of medical claims, check with organizations and agencies like the National Institutes of Health or the Centers for Disease Control or individuals who have medical degrees. Look for years of related experience and published research. People who have worked at or studied a subject extensively have more understanding of their topic.

c. Is the source unbiased?

Independent laboratories and agencies are the most likely source for unbiased information. Who funds cited research projects? Unfortunately, funding often seems tied to the outcome of the research. Research funded by organizations with significant monetary stakes in the outcome of the research should be viewed with healthy skepticism.

If the author did not list his sources, then more work is required to determine whether the source was reliable. Assessing source reliability is most difficult when the source is listed as a “well-placed source” or “an anonymous source”, or some equally unspecific citing is given. In those cases, treat the information as possibly suspect. Two methods can be pursued at this point. Wait to see how events play out before deciding to treat the information as true or search for collaboration or refutation of the claim from other sources.

Search the Internet with care.

Just because you find something on the Internet does not make it true. Many blogs, newsletters, and articles are not well edited, not reviewed for accuracy, and do not follow journalistic standards. One of the most common mistakes is assuming that because something appears on the Internet, especially if it occurs multiple times, it is true. Since many authors just restate what they read somewhere else without checking the facts, readers can see multiple iterations of inaccurate information. Remember to verify the source. Find the originator of the information and assess their trustworthiness.

If you are researching political statements, you might wish to check FactCheck.org which specializes in researching the issues which appear on the political scene. Other websites which provide more consistently edited and reviewed information include Wikipedia, sites ending with “.gov”, and major newspapers.

Ask a Subject Matter Expert.

As an editor, I occasionally run across something for which it is difficult to find an answer. I turn to experts by searching on the Internet and then send an e-mail request for assistance. Depending on the subject, I might ask college professors, coaches, or whatever other category of expert applies. I provide a short description of my question and ask for their help. I usually send up to five requests which increases my chances of getting at least one response. This has been a successful strategy. I always send a “thank you”!

Ask a Research Librarian.

If you are at a loss for how to check a piece of information, ask your local research librarian. They are well-versed in research techniques and authoritative publications, government, and Internet sources and can refer you to appropriate material in their own reference section.

Check with the Library of Congress.

You can also use the vast resources of the Library of Congress to check on the accuracy of information. Their online “Ask a Librarian” program lets you submit a request for information and their librarians will research the issue and e-mail a response.

Fact checking is worth the effort. Editors will improve the trustworthiness of their publication by ensuring the facts are well-supported and accurate. Readers will be confident about understanding issues and making sound decisions when they know the facts presented are true.

About the Author

Celia Webb is President of Pilinut Press, Inc., publishers of advanced readers for children and ESL students. Check out www.pilinutpress.com for more free articles on developing reading-related skills, word games and puzzles, and activity sheets for the company’s entertaining and educational books.

By Andrew Carter

When you sit down and think about it, or even stand around and think about it (!), English words have seeped into the vocabulary of millions of people, thanks, in the main part, to the genius of marketing gurus over the past century. Not just English words, though – there’s a whole swathe of brand names that are truly international, aren’t there?

Product names – for example Coca Cola, Sony and Nokia; Car brands – Toyota, Nissan, Renault, Mercedes; Place names – London, Paris, New York; and how about Sushi, Hamburger, Karate, Brad Pitt, Titanic, Soccer, Microsoft and Marlboro? When faced with students in their early hours and days of an English As A Second Language course, using these words is a great confidence booster. They help get brains in gear – the cranial juices flowing!

Ask the class, or better still, SHOW the class a series of pictures of things which are internationally known – encourage them to speak out the names and words they see. The very best thing, with beginners is if the teacher says very little – merely encouraging words out by gesture and expression – then the students are searching for the words themselves (and they KNOW these) and getting quick results. When the words come – write them on the board.

Then the critical part – speak them out. The students are now hearing the words spoken in English. They are hearing English sounds for familiar words. They will see and hear mouth and lip shapes and sounds that may not be familiar to them, but which are wrapped around familiar words. They’ll have a go, and you’ll be setting foundations for the new English words they will learn in the coming weeks, using materials that they already have in their armoury!

It’s a really encouraging strategy for the teacher to employ. Whenever the student hears or comes across a word as the course progresses that he regards as ‘international’, get him to point the fact out. Then marvel at how many of the words we use every day really do span continents and cultures!

About the author

Andrew is a qualified TEFL (Teaching English as a Foreign Language) teacher, with 15 years experience of the global Automotive Industry as a Sales manager with an International component and systems supplier. For more information about learning English with Andrew at his home in the UK, visit the Lets Talk 2 website.

By Adam Simpson

Introduction

PowerPoint is an incredibly popular piece of software, mainly because it comes with Microsoft packages. PowerPoint files are easy to create and can be e-mailed as attachments. They can be posted on or downloaded from websites. Not only can PowerPoint presentations be traded and exchanged, they can also be modified to fit any individual classroom setting. Although PowerPoint has been around for years, it’s just begun to spread to schools and ELT classrooms as more and more classrooms and teachers have access to computers and the hardware to use PowerPoint. For these reasons, PowerPoint is becoming an increasingly popular medium in ELT.

Classroom Uses of PowerPoint

PowerPoint presentations can be used in many ways in ELT. For example, presentations can be used for presenting language structures, for practice and drilling, or for reviews.

Initial Presentation

PowerPoint can be used to teach new structures to students. Theoretically this sounds good; however, in practice there are problems. The teacher must anticipate areas of misunderstanding and difficulty. For this reason, the presentation must be clear. It should address anticipated areas of student difficulty in a chronological manner. Such a presentation is difficult to prepare, but it can be done. Once an initial teaching presentation is prepared, it can be saved and used repeatedly, and it can be shared with others.

Practice & Drilling

PowerPoint presentations lend themselves to practice and drilling. To do this it is necessary to have the type of material, which can be repeated many times. A presentation of irregular verbs is one example of something which can be repeated again and again. Other types of material can be repeated on a weekly or biweekly basis. Presentations using the correct preposition, or the correct form of an adjective, or verb tenses could be practiced and reviewed periodically.

Review

PowerPoint presentations are great for reviewing ideas which have already been taught. After the students have learned and practiced something, it is useful to see a presentation. Such presentations can stimulate visual learners in a way that traditional materials cannot. Not only do most learners find this interesting, but it is also a good checking that learners have internalized particular language points. Furthermore, PowerPoint presentations are a good, lighthearted way to review language before a test.

Creating PowerPoint Presentations

Anyone can create presentations if you have PowerPoint software. There are many good tutorials on how to create presentations. Some are listed at the end of this article.

Borrowing Presentations

There are many great websites where a teacher can ‘borrow’ PowerPoint presentations. These can be found by putting something like ‘English PowerPoint presentation’ in a search engine. You might also try “ESL/ELT/EFL PowerPoint’ and variations thereof. Again, some are listed at the end of the article.

Beware!

There are problems with downloaded presentations:

If the presentation was created on a different platform (Mac or PC) from yours you may have some font problems with specialised symbols.

Another problem is macros. You can pick up viruses attached to a macro. Be careful and download only from trustworthy sites.

Many are specific to a particular school or situation. When adapting be careful to make sure you catch all the small details.

Conclusion

PowerPoint presentations are easy to create, borrow and use. They are a great and versatile asset to any ELT classroom. Good presentations will take time to produce or adapt, but they can be shared and used again and again. They can be used for any number of purposes, and in numerous situations. It is likely that more and more PowerPoint presentations are going to be used in English language teaching in the future.

PowerPoint Tutorials

http://www.actden.com/pp/
http://www.electricteacher.com/tutorial3.htm
http://www.bitbetter.com/powertips.htm
http://www.teachers-connect.net/cc/99-00/advpp.htm

PowerPoint Downloads

http://208.183.128.3/ce/ppt.htm
http://oswego.org/ocsd-web/teaching/resources/resources-x.cfm?Type=P
http://www.elko.k12.nv.us/nntc/ppp.htm

About the author

The author has been living and working as an English teacher in Turkey for almost a decade and is a regular contributor to Horizons: The ELT World Journal

Victor Epand suggests that computer games have value in language learning.

How about those games which teach English for you? They are a great addition to your child’s learning utilities. In these games the child can learn plurals. I am talking about learning that the plural for tooth is teeth and the plurals for face is faces. The child will type in the answer to each word. As they progress the levels get tougher.

Plural Girls is a great game for the beginning child to learn what the plural for words are. There are 4 levels to play. The easiest level is “Fill in the Blank”, then comes “Tough Fill in the Blank”. The harder levels include two games, “Multiple Choice” and “Tough Multiple Choice”. Each has a place in your child’s English program. After finishing a round of each, the game will score the child with a “Clever” if they have just gotten 1/2 of the problems correct. So it is not too harsh for their little egos! Even as an adult, I see that I might need to play this game to review what obviously I missed in my Junior High and High School days. Must have been looking at the boys instead of listening!

Subscribe to The ELT Times by Email

The Grammar Girls is based on articles of speech. For the beginner they have nouns and verbs. In this game the computer will give you a sentence with two words in a bright color. One of the words is a noun and one is a verb. It will ask the child to click on the verb. If the child picks the right choice then they get a score added to the correct side.

With the Advanced game the child will have a choice of pronouns, nouns, verbs, conjunctions, adjectives and adverbs. Again the scoring is the same, but this game is so much harder that anyone under the age of 8 might not be equipped for playing it. But, what the heck, it will teach them so that they will be ahead of the game!

Then there is a game called Word Link. This is a giant scramble game where the child can connect letter to form words. After clicking on the letters that are adjacent to each other that spell a word, the letters then form the word in a box on the upper left side. If that is a verified word the child will then click submit and it will give him or her points. There is a timer that is always going so hurry up!!

The game called Keyword is a difficult game and should only be played by a student who has mastered spelling. We don’t mean first grade spelling, we mean a child who has a fairly good vocabulary going! The child is given a set of letters much like Word Link, but is much tougher. He or she must connect the letters that would make a word. Problem is that the first letter much touch the second letter much touch the third. The more letters that the child can combine to make a word the better the score is. This is a very challenging game and probably would be better played with an adult or a teacher. If your child was very good at words he or she could possibly do this alone, but again we suggest parental supervision!

About the author

Victor Epand is an expert consultant for computer memory, PC supplies, and computer games.

By Steve Kaufmann

English is the dominant language of the Internet. The Internet will in turn become the dominant place to learn English. The way languages are learned is changing, and these changes are accelerating.

The Internet is constantly evolving. It has created a dynamic environment for the communication and the management of information. The Internet has brought with it new forms of social interaction without boundaries. Technologies like MP3, iPod, Skype and PDAs, as well as blogs and podcasts, are making an immense variety of communication, information, literature, news and other language content available anywhere and anytime. A cascade of developments is causing interactive communities to spring up based on common interests, without regard to geography. This is going to stand traditional language learning on its head. English dominates on the Internet in areas ranging from entertainment to science. If you want to learn English, this represents an unprecedented opportunity.

Subscribe to The ELT Times by Email

You can access English language content on any subject and learn from it. You can connect with English speaking people who share your interests. You can do this via e-mail, through blogs, podcasts and forums. You can link up with friends or even language tutors using free Internet telephony. The World Wide Web is the ultimate dynamic classroom and learning community.

Over the next few years the Internet will take over from the classroom as the place of choice to learn English: Here are some of the reasons.

The Primacy of Input

If you want to learn English or any other language, you need input, meaningful, interesting and at your level. Today language learning experts emphasize input over output, listening and reading over grammar study. Before you can use the language, you must get used to the language. You don’t need to be in a hurry to speak English, and you don’t need to speak it all the time to improve.

“Real language acquisition develops slowly, and speaking skills emerge significantly later than listening skills, even when conditions are perfect. The best methods are therefore those that supply ‘comprehensible input’ in low anxiety situations, containing messages that students really want to hear. These methods do not force early production in the second language, but allow students to produce when they are ‘ready’, recognizing that improvement comes from supplying communicative and comprehensible input, and not from forcing and correcting production.” Stephen Krashen.

When you learned your own language as a child, you didn’t begin by speaking. You began by listening. New language learners can benefit from a “silent period”. During the “silent period” you can absorb the language. You need not force yourself to speak it until you are confident. Even if you are an intermediate learner, extensive reading and listening will increase your familiarity with the language, enrich your vocabulary, and develop confidence. This is more beneficial than studying grammar.

While listening and reading often and regularly are vital, the content must be meaningful. Learning content should be interesting and comprehensible to you. This means that you, not the teacher, should choose what to learn from. The Internet allows unlimited choice of fascinating authentic content. The traditional textbook cannot compete.

Motivated learners used to spend their time in book stores looking for graded content that would help them in their language studies. Yet, inevitably a lot of this material could only be found in uninteresting textbooks and readers. But today authentic content on a variety of subjects is only a click away. This is especially the case for the person who wants to learn English.

This range of material is made accessible to learners, since new systems can grade it for difficulty in a way that is customized to your specific vocabulary. You can learn English by listening to and reading on subjects that interest you and you won’t find it too difficult.

Vocabulary over Grammar

In order to achieve fluency in English you need to be comfortable using at least 10,000 words. On the Internet, you can choose appropriate content to listen to and read. The content can be graded to your level. But what about learning and remembering all those new words. We know how quickly we forget words when we look them up in a dictionary. And there are so many words to learn. Fortunately, the Internet makes it a lot easier to learn vocabulary.

On the Internet you can use online dictionaries to look up words instantly (i.e., Babylon). There are learning software programs which create customized word lists for you as you learn words. This software can help you accumulate example sentences for these words from the familiar contexts you are listening to and reading. You can set vocabulary goals and follow your progress towards these goals.

The Internet helps you to efficiently accumulate vocabulary based on lively and interesting language content, customized to your needs. This combination of vocabulary learning efficiency and limitless content is only part of why the Internet will become the place of choice to learn English.

Learning in Chunks

Vocabulary does not only mean words. It also means phrases, or chunks of words. Phrases are groups of words that come together in a way that is natural to the native speaker but not always to the learner. Michael Lewis has been one of the pioneers in pointing out that you learn language in chunks, or lexical phrases. The Internet and the computer make this easier.

On the computer, you can grab language chunks as you are listening and reading and collect them in an easy to use database. Phrases and chunks of the language can be linked to larger contexts, which are already familiar to you. You don’t need to rely on dictionary definitions and rote memory. You can review these chunks of language in short fragment form, in sentence form and as part of a larger context that you can listen to and read many times.

In this way you gradually develop an instinctive sense for how words are used. This is the natural way to learn correct usage. It is more effective than trying to remember and apply grammar rules.

As you build up your confidence in English through regular input and word and phrase learning, you will no doubt want to talk to native speakers. Once again the Internet is the ideal environment, offering more opportunities than the classroom.

Better Tutors on the Internet

The Internet connects people who are looking for each other. A quick search on a few professional web sites will locate native English speaker writers, editors, or professionals from all over the world, who are interested in acting as language tutors and coaches. If you want to learn English, you can interact with this outstanding pool of qualified people with a wide range of experience and knowledge.

You do not need teachers with specialized linguistics degrees if you want to learn English on the Internet. The new learning paradigm does not require teachers who are trained in the details of grammar and language teaching. Instead the important qualifications for a tutor on the Internet are; an interest in people, an ability to use one’s native language well, and rich experience to share with learners in English.

On the Internet you can choose the tutor whose accent and interests match your own.

Meaningful Communication

Technologies like Skype make conversations via computer easy to organize and the communication is free of charge. You can get your friends together for a chat or make an appointment with a tutor.

It is like having lessons on demand. You can schedule one-on-one or four-on-one discussions via Skype with the tutor of your choice. You can invite your friends to join, or make new friends from different countries and cultures. Tutors need only provide advice and encouragement as well as feedback, at your convenience. There is no need for grammar instruction or quizzes, since you are learning the language naturally through your input activities.

In the relaxing atmosphere of Internet online discussion, learners and tutors become friends and form a community of people helping and encouraging each other. These are not stressful lessons. They are pleasant opportunities to communicate. You can record these conversations or produce your own oral essays and file them or share them. In this way you can keep track of your progress as you learn English on the Internet.

To really improve your accuracy of expression it is important to write. The correction of written texts can be efficiently organized on the Internet and integrated with your input and speaking activities. Systems can keep a permanent record of both your original texts and the corrected texts. These records can include details on the nature of your mistakes and the tutor’s notes. Tutors can make audio recordings of your corrected writing for you to listen to, in order to reinforce the learning of the corrected phrases. The writing can range from casual writing for a blog to serious academic essays.

Motivation and Enjoyment

Learning on the Internet is effective because it is fun. The Internet avoids the tension and boredom of the classroom and increases your motivation. You choose the content, vocabulary is easy to learn, progress is constantly measured, and you become part of a community.

There are already blogging communities with learners and tutors sharing their experiences. People come together from all over the world to help each other. Bloggers may post in their own language, or in English. English becomes the medium of communication among people of different cultural backgrounds. Blogging isn’t an assignment, but a genuine, enjoyable, and meaningful activity. A contagious enthusiasm will keep you learning. It is not like studying. It’s more like making new friends and discovering new cultures through language.

Efficiency

The Internet introduces a higher level of efficiency in language learning. Efficiency is essential because it creates intensity. It takes a high degree of intensity to transform yourself into a fluent speaker of another language.

There is also another reason why efficiency is important. You have a right to a decent return on your investment of time and money in language learning. If you want to learn English, efficiency is important, yet it is often ignored in traditional language teaching.

“I spent over 14 months studying English in a school. It was a waste of money for Canadian government and a waste of time for me.” Humberto Soto, a recent immigrant to Canada.

Traditional classroom methods are not as efficient as the Internet. It is difficult to cater to learners of different levels and interests. Stress and boredom are often the results. Many people are discouraged by their school experience, and end up convinced that they cannot learn to be fluent in a new language. They lose interest and give up.

For people who want to learn English, the Internet opens up a new world of efficient and satisfying language learning. The Internet makes possible a quality and variety of input that far exceeds the resources of a traditional classroom. Learning methodologies and communication opportunities are available to you on the Internet that the classroom cannot match. Goals can be set and achievements measured. The result is a highly integrated and enjoyable learning environment.

This new method of learning appeals to all ages. While youngsters and students are the most avid users of the Internet, according to the Kaiser Family Foundation 70% of Americans between the ages of 55 and 64 use the Internet! Similar trends are being seen in Europe and Asia.

A Learning Community, The Linguist

The Linguist is both a learning methodology and a community. It is the first language learning system developed specifically to take advantage of the possibilities offered by the Internet. It was initially developed to help people learn English. It is now being revised and expanded in order to offer other major world languages. In the future, The Linguist model has many applications for life-long education.

The explosion of new media and learning technologies via the Internet will change forever the way people learn. The Linguist system will influence how many subjects are taught. It will make it possible for people all over the world to share their knowledge, expertise and learn from each other, in many languages. Learning English is just one of many lessons we can learn on the Internet. Another one of them is to learn how to learn.

About The Author

Steve Kaufmann, CEO and Founder of The Linguist, grew up in Montreal. He obtained a Diplome from l’Institut d’Etudes Politiques de Paris in 1966 and then entered the Canadian Foreign Service, as a Trade Commissioner.

Steve was posted to Hong Kong in 1968 and then served in Japan from 1971 to 1974. In 1974 he left the diplomatic service and served in senior executive positions in the Canadian forest industry until 1987. In 1987 he founded his own company, KP Wood Ltd which today has offices in Japan, Sweden and Canada.

Steve speaks fluent Japanese, Mandarin, Cantonese as well as six European languages. He wrote: The Way of the Linguist: A Language Learning Odyssey. In 2002 he established The Linguist Institute Ltd.

By Ronald Doherty

English is the dominant Internet and business language so making cash online (or offline) often involves English writing. More importantly perhaps, is the fact that everyday, but life-changing documents, resumes job applications, essays, term papers, business plans, loan and rental applications, and sales letters, are often written in English.

Subscribe to The ELT Times by Email

How often has your next career or business initiative relied on the English writing in a document?

How often has the reader chosen someone else’s document instead of yours?

How often have subtle messages in the writing, often sub-conscious, swung a life-changing decision against you? Often, you will not be told the real reason.

English is a very complex and forgiving spoken language, but a demanding and unforgiving language in its written form. When people are talking, there is usually enough contextual and other information to work out the meaning. So, if the words are spoken in the wrong order, or wrong words, or incorrect grammar used, the listener can usually work out what the speaker really means. In conversational english, you can get away with a lot.

However, written English is not so forgiving and, once you hit the enter key, it’s too late. You cannot get your business submission, resume, proposal, or assignment back. It has to be right before submission.

Readers of written English, both online and offline, form very quick judgments about the written English used in critical documents. Micro- second judgements are formed when reading life-changing written documents like resumes, business letters, loan and tenancy applications, proposals, grant submissions, assignments, term papers, business emails and other forms of written communication. The writing in documents can be judged very harshly.

One of the problems is, where English is a second language, people tend to think in their first language and then translate into English. Often the translation process is done subconsciously using the grammar and other rules of their primary language. The results tend to jumble the grammar and syntax so their English writing becomes stilted and awkward. The writing loses its ‘flow’ and, in turn, confuses or irritates the reader.

This means, very often, the long hours, effort, and hard work and preparation put into the document begin to unravel at the last hurdle – writing the document in English. The written communication does not adequately reflect the character of the writer.

I used to work in a multi-cultural call centre in Australia and saw this happening a lot. Friends and colleagues would come to me for advice about writing their resumes, covering letters and various other written documents. Their writing was stilted, repetitive and difficult to read. I would work through the document, leave their ideas and concepts intact, but improve the flow and readability of the document so that the reader could more easily and quickly move through the written information.

Remember, the reader is the one that makes the final decision.

I am a writer and provided the service for nothing and in my spare time. They were friends and colleagues who just wanted to get an interview, find a better position, and move forward in life. I have the skills, love writing, and had a well paid job. I could afford to help people. Finding someone who will do that and charge nothing is a rarity.

However, why rely on the favours of others when software is available, an online English writing tool that makes English writing easy. English writing software can give your writing the professional edge that makes the difference between being read or left for dead.

About The Author

Ronald Doherty is a writer with a background in corporate change management and special projects, and now writes on business building and personal development. For more information on English writing please visit his site.

By M.Enamul Hoque

During the last few decades a continuing but significant move has taken place, resulting in less emphasis on teachers and teaching and greater stress on learners and learning.

This article provides an overview of key issues concerning the use of language learning strategies (LLS) in second and foreign language (L2/FL) learning and teaching

Weinstein and Mayer (1986) defined learning strategies (LS) broadly as “behaviours and thoughts that a learner engages in during learning” which are “intended to influence the learner’s encoding process”. Later Mayer (1988) more specifically defined LS as “behaviours of a learner that are intended to influence how the learner processes information”.

A good number of definitions and meanings have been used for Language learning strategies (LLS) by key figures in the field. Tarone (1983) defined a Learning strategy as “an attempt to develop linguistic and sociolinguistic competence in the target language — to incorporate these into one’s interlanguage competence”. Rubin (1987) suggests that Learning strategies “are strategies which contribute to the development of the language system which the learner constructs and affect learning directly”. O’Malley and Chamot (1990) defined Learning Strategies as “the special thoughts or behaviours that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn, or retain new information”. Oxford (1990) views that language learning strategies are the specific actions, behaviours, steps, or techniques that students (often intentionally) use to improve their progress in developing language skills. These strategies can facilitate the internalization, storage, retrieval, or use of the new language. Strategies are tools for the self-directed involvement necessary for developing communicative ability. At the same time, we should note that LLS are distinct from learning styles, which refer more broadly to a learner’s “natural, habitual, and preferred way(s) of absorbing, processing, and retaining new information and skills” Reid (1995), though there appears to be an obvious relationship between one’s language learning style and his or her usual or preferred language learning strategies.

There are a number of basic characteristics in the generally accepted view of LLS.

Subscribe to The ELT Times by Email

• First, LLS are learner generated; they are steps taken by language learners.

• Second, LLS enhance language learning and help develop language competence, as reflected in the learner’s skills in listening, speaking, reading, or writing the L2 or FL.

• Third, LLS may be visible (behaviours, steps, techniques, etc.) or unseen (thoughts, mental processes).

Cohen (1990) insists that only conscious strategies are LLS, and that there must be a choice involved on the part of the learner. Transfer of a strategy from one language or language skill to another is a related goal of LLS, as Pearson (1988) and Skehan (1989) have discussed. In her teacher-oriented text, Oxford summarises her view of LLS by listing twelve key features. In addition to the characteristics noted above, Skehan states that LLS:

• allow learners to become more self-directed

• expand the role of language teachers

• are problem-oriented

• involve many aspects, not just the cognitive

• can be taught

• are flexible

• are influenced by a variety of factors

Within ‘communicative’ approaches to language teaching a key goal is for the learner to develop communicative competence in the target L2/FL, and LLS can help students in doing so. Communication strategies are used by speakers intentionally and consciously in order to cope with difficulties in communicating in a L2/FL.

In addition to developing students’ communicative competence, LLS are important because research suggests that training students to use LLS can help them become better language learners. Early research on ‘good language learners’ by Naiman, Frohlich, Stern, and Todesco (1978, 1996), Rubin (1975), and Stern (1975) suggested a number of positive strategies that such students employ, ranging from using an active task approach in and monitoring one’s L2/FL performance to listening to the radio in the L2/FL and speaking with native speakers.

A study by O’Malley and Chamot (1990) also suggests that effective L2/FL learners are aware of the LLS they use and why they use them. Graham’s (1997) work in French further indicates that L2/FL teachers can help students understand good LLS and should train them to develop and use them.

With the above background on Learning Strategies and some of the related literature, this section provides an overview of how LLS and LLS training have been or may be used in the classroom, and briefly describes a three step approach to implementing LLS training in the L2/FL classroom.

LLS and LLS training may be integrated into a variety of classes for L2/FL students. One type of course that appears to be becoming more popular, especially in intensive English programmes, is one focusing on the language learning process itself.

It is crucial for teachers to study their teaching context, paying special attention to their students, their materials, and their own teaching. If they are going to train their students in using LLS, it is crucial to know something about these individuals, their interests, motivations, learning styles, etc. By observing their behaviour in class, for example, one will be able to see what LLS they already appear to be using. Do they often ask for clarification, verification, or correction, as discussed briefly above? Do they co-operate with their peers or seem to have much contact outside of class with proficient L2/FL users? Beyond observation, however, one can prepare a short questionnaire that students can fill in at the beginning of a course, describing themselves and their language learning.

Talking to students informally before or after class, or more formally interviewing select students about these topics can also provide a lot of information about one’s students, their goals, motivations, and LLS, and their understanding of the particular course being taught.

Beyond the students, however, one’s teaching materials are also important in considering LLS and LLS training. Textbooks, for example, should be analyzed to see whether they already include LLS or LLS training. Working with other language, learner improves their listening and speaking skills. Audiotapes, videotapes, hand-outs, and other materials for the course at hand should also be examined for LLS or for specific ways that LLS training might be implemented in using them. Perhaps teachers will be surprised to find many LLS incorporated into their materials, with more possibilities than they had imagined. If not, they might look for new texts or other teaching materials that do provide such opportunities.

After teachers have studied their teaching context, begin to focus on specific LLS in their regular teaching that are relevant to learners, materials, and teaching style. If teachers have found 10 different LLS for writing explicitly used in your text, for example, they could highlight these as they go through the course, giving students clear examples.

Graham (1997) declares, LLS training “needs to be integrated into students’ regular classes if they are going to appreciate their relevance for language learning tasks; students need to constantly monitor and evaluate the strategies they develop and use; and they need to be aware of the nature, function and importance of such strategies” . Whether it is a specific conversation, reading, writing, or other class, an organized and informed focus on LLS and LLS training will help students learn and provide more opportunities for them to take responsibility for their learning.

As Graham suggests, “those teachers who have thought carefully about how they learned a language, about which strategies are most appropriate for which tasks, are more likely to be successful in developing ’strategic competence’ in their students” (p. 170). Beyond contemplating one’s own language learning, it is also crucial to reflect on one’s LLS training and teaching in the classroom. After each class, for example, one might ponder the effectiveness of the lesson and the role of LLS and LLS training within it. An informal log of such reflections and one’s personal assessment of the class, either in a notebook or on the actual lesson plans, might be used later to reflect on LLS training in the course as a whole after its completion.

In addition to the teacher’s own reflections, it is essential to encourage learner reflection, both during and after the LLS training in the class or course.

In an interesting action research study involving “guided reflection” As Graham (170) declares, “For learners, a vital component of self-directed learning lies in the on-going evaluation of the methods, they have employed on tasks and of their achievements within the…programme” Whatever the context or method, it is important for L2/FL learners to have the chance to reflect on their language learning and LLS use.

The first, and most important, concerns the professionalism of teachers who use LLS and LLS training in their work. As Davis (1997) has aptly noted, “our actions speak louder than words”, and it is therefore important for professionals who use LLS training to also model such strategies both within their classroom teaching and, especially in EFL contexts, in their own FL learning. Furthermore, LLS obviously involve individuals’ unique cognitive, social, and affective learning styles and strategies. As an educator I am interested in helping my students learn and reflect on their learning, but I also question the tone and motivation reflected in some of the LLS literature. Oxford (1990a), for example, seems to describe many of my Japanese EFL students when she writes:

Motivation is a key concern both for teachers and students. Yet while teachers hope to motivate our students and enhance their learning, professionally we must be very clear not to manipulate them in the process, recognising that ultimately learning is the student’s responsibility. If our teaching is appropriate and learner-centred, we will not manipulate our students as we encourage them to develop and use their own LLS. Instead we will take learners’ motivations and learning styles into account as we teach in order for them to improve their L2/FL skills and LLS.

The second reflection pertains to the integration of LLS into both language learning/teaching theory and curriculum. The focus of this article is largely practical, noting why LLS are useful and how they can or might be included in regular L2/FL classes.

The related challenge, is how to integrate LLS into our L2/FL curriculum, especially in places like Bangladesh where “learner-centred” approaches or materials may not be implemented very easily. Using texts which incorporate LLS training, such as those in the Tapestry series, remains difficult in FL contexts when they are mainly oriented to L2 ones. Many FL teachers include LLS and LLS training in the FL curriculum of their regular, everyday language (as opposed to content) classes. This final point brings us to this and other questions for future LLS research.

The article has provided a brief overview of Language Learning Strategies (LLS) by examining their background and summarizing the relevant literature. It has also sketched out some ways that LLS training has been used and offered a three step approach for teachers to consider in implementing it within their own L2/FL classes. It has also upheld two important issues, posed questions for further LLS study, and noted a number of contacts that readers may use in networking on LLS in L2/FL education.

Canale, M., & Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics, 1(1), 1-47.

Cohen, A. (1990). Language Learning: Insights for Learners, Teachers, and Researchers. New York: Newbury House.

Ellis, G., & Sinclair, B. (1989). Learning to Learn English: A Course in Learner Training. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Ellis, R. (1994). The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Freeman, D., & Richards, J. (Eds.). (1996). Teacher Learning in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Gardner, D., & Miller, L. (Eds.). (1996). Tasks for Independent Language Learning. Alexandria, VA: TESOL.

Graham, S. (1997). Effective Language Learning. Clevedon, Avon: Multilingual

Nunan, D. (1995). Closing the gap between learning and instruction. TESOL Quarterly, 29(1), 133-158.

Nunan, D. (1996). Learner strategy training in the classroom: An action research study. TESOL Journal, 6(1), 35-41.

Offner, M. (1997). Teaching English conversation in Japan: Teaching how to learn. The Internet TESL Journal [on-line serial], 3(3) [March 1997].

O’Malley, J.M., & Chamot, A. (1990). Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Oxford, R. (1990). Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know. New York: Newbury House.

Skehan, P. (1989). Language learning strategies (Chapter 5). Individual Differences in Second-Language Learning (pp. 73- 99). London: Edward Arnold.

Tarone, E. (1983). Some thoughts on the notion of ‘communication stategy’. In C. Faerch & G. Kasper (Eds.), Strategies in Interlanguage Communication (pp. 61-74). London: Longman.

About the author

M.Enamul Hoque has been an English language teacher for over 15 years in different Government institutes of Bangladesh. He is an Instructor of ELT in the Education and Training Wing, Ministry of Environment and Forest. He has MA in English from Dhaka University, and M.Phil in Applied Linguistics and ELT from the Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka, Bangladesh. He has published widely on a variety of topics and is particularly interested in English language teaching and applied linguistics.

Celia Webb discusses the benefits of increased vocab acquisition in Business English.

Learning English terms for matters of finance and business is an important part of being a successful business person in the English-speaking world. Most common business actions require reading contracts, invoices, purchase orders, and other financial and legal documents. You will also want to be able to conduct negotiations and perform the common courtesies expected in the business world. In order to successfully transact your business, you must know the language of business.

The first challenge is the number of words related to business and financial matters, not counting all the acronyms like FDIC and APR. The English language contains hundreds of word and phrases related to financial matters. The next challenge is that many of these words describe sophisticated concepts which are difficult to explain and are not widely understood in the first place (for example, how many of us can rattle off an explanation for capitalization?).

Developing your vocabulary of financial terms is critical to your financial management and business success. Here are ways to increase your financial vocabulary.

Subscribe to The ELT Times by Email

Extra! Extra! Read all about it!

Use news stories as a starting point for exploring new vocabulary. Pick a word from the news story and research the word in the dictionary or on the internet. Write the word down in your “financial terms” notebook with its definition. An alternative to a notebook is a system of index cards which are then sorted alphabetically and kept in a small file box.

Read a good book

Financial situations are so fundamental to the daily life of human beings that many books deal with or have an undercurrent of economic themes. Rags to riches, the struggle of the poor, the standard of living enjoyed by the characters, are all themes which often appear in books. Along with the themes comes the vocabulary used to describe what is happening to the characters. As you encounter unfamiliar words, jot them down on an index card along with their definition. If you organize the words alphabetically, you will find them easier to look up when you next run across them. Choose a card each day to carry in your purse or briefcase. Pull out the card whenever you are waiting in line and study it. Books which contain glossaries are helpful since you do not need to carry a dictionary as well. Some publishers also offer vocabulary worksheets, puzzles, and games to help people work with new words. Check the publisher’s website for support materials.

Tool kit

Search the internet using keywords like “financial terms games”, and “business terms” to find all sorts of resources to help you add to your financial vocabulary. There are games, puzzles, word searches, newsletters, tips, and other readily available tools for explaining financial terms and concepts.

Practice time

Practice saying the word often. Say it to yourself several times by sounding out the word. Listen to it being pronounced by English speakers either on the TV or radio. Search the internet using keywords like “English listening online” and “English listening” to find free resources for practicing English listening skills. Many sites offer downloadable MP3 files which you can play numerous times until you feel comfortable with the word’s sound. If you search on “English speaking” or English speaking online”, you will find resources for practicing your pronunciation skills. If you know an English speaker who is willing to practice with you, ask to meet on a regular basis. Or form an English club to give you plenty of opportunities to practice.

The impact of money on our lives is obvious because of the large number of words in the English vocabulary which describe and denote different aspects of money and business. By learning financial terms and their meanings, you provide the groundwork for a successful career in business.

About the Author

Celia Webb, President of Pilinut Press, Inc., publishers of advanced readers for children and ESL students. Check out Pilinut Press for more vocabulary tips, word searches, and other vocabulary activity sheets.

By Shelley Vernon

If you don’t want your class to glaze over with dictation, writing exercises and “Jimmy, would you please read paragraph 1,” then take heart! You’ll find you can teach everything you want with games, and the children remember it better to boot.

Here is a disarmingly simple game, which can be used for many purposes. Please note this particular game is for small groups of up to 20 children or so, and you need floor space. If you have more than 20 in your classes and no floor space, please see the ‘About the author’ section for free games for all class sizes.

The players stand round in a circle with one player standing in the middle. Each player has a picture of an item, or a word flash card, except for the player in the middle. Call out two of the picture card items or words. The two players holding these cards have to change places without the person in the middle grabbing one of their spots. If the person in the middle manages to slip into the spot in the circle then the one left standing goes in the middle. The new person in the middle hands their flash card to the child taking their place in the circle.

Subscribe to The ELT Times by Email

If someone is stuck in the middle for two turns say, “All Change!” When the players hear this they must all change places, which gives the person in the middle a very good chance of joining the circle. Once everyone has had one go ask your class to pass their picture to the right, and take the one handed to them from the left. You can give them another go with the new picture.

Notice that only 2 children move at any one time (aside from when you say “All Change), which makes it easy to keep control.

How could you use this game in your language teaching? Firstly, you can use it to reinforce new vocabulary, secondly, for revision, thirdly to help spelling by playing the game with word flashcards instead of pictures, and fourthly, to practise a grammatical structure.

Let us say you want to teach the conditional tense and you start with “I would like”. Hand out pictures of food that your pupils already know. Call out “I would like bananas and pie”. The pupil with the bananas tries to change places with the pupil holding the pie without the person in the middle taking one of the spots in the circle. Continue until everyone has had a go, repeating the target structure each time. With a class that learns quickly you can also introduce the rest of the declension (he and she would like, etc.). You are now ready to proceed to a speaking game where your pupils use the target structure, as they will have heard it repeatedly by now. You can follow the speaking game up with a writing game, and hey presto your children can understand, say, read and write the new target structure.

Now what better way is there to teach grammar than that? You are teaching grammar by absorption and repetition, which is the way we learn our native tongue, and for children it is by far the best way to go.

About the Author

Shelley Vernon, conscious of the vital role teachers can play in the lives of their pupils, promotes learning through encouragement and games. Sign up for free games and ideas on http://www.teachingenglishgames.com. Make your job easy and fun teaching children English through games.