How to write more accurately and improve your grade, by Celia Webb

Fact checking is an important part of writing an accurate article. Meticulous authors do research prior to committing their thoughts to paper. Not all authors are so careful. Editors and readers serve society and themselves well when they read with a judicious eye. Just because a piece is written and printed does not necessarily make it true. The ability to check facts, coupled with an openness to a possible bias on the part of an author, will enable the discernment of truth or distortion.

Editors have a responsibility to fact check before printing an article or book. Some editors do this very well. Others do not. If you are an editor, the tips below could help you produce better articles thereby building a reputation as a reliable source.

Readers could benefit from these tips by being able to ascertain whether what they are reading is actually true, elaborations on truth, or, just plain inaccurate. In these days of information being rapidly accessed on the Internet where anyone can publish anything, it is vital to know how to pick out what is factual information and what is not. Readers should be aware that facts can be twisted or interpreted incorrectly also, that they can be used as the basis to support a poorly reasoned conclusion. So the fact could be correct, but the logic used to support a particular argument could be defective. This article does not address how to pick out faulty logic.

The Process of Fact Checking. Here is a sequence of steps to follow in fact checking. If you are writing for publication or academic purposes, you will want to do the final step of recording what you find. If you are fact checking for your own edification, this step may not be important to you.

a. Read the material.

b. Read the material a second time, marking passages for checking.

c. Write down the claims to check and list keywords and potential resources to research.

d. Do the research.

e. Record results including the source.

Who is the Author?

The first thing to determine is the qualifications of the author. Experts writing in their field may be given credit as more likely to be knowledgeable and accurate. However, the author may harbor a bias. The use of inflammatory language is one overt clue to bias. The use of subtle innuendo is a covert one. Check for degrees, certifications, awards, and years of experience. Next, look for evidence of due diligence by the author. Are sources listed for claims made? Did the author do original research?

Is the Source trustworthy?

In the case of an editor or author, a “source” would be those references used by the author to support his argument. In the case of a reader, “source” also includes the author of the material. Sources should be reliable, knowledgeable, and unbiased in order to be trustworthy. Ask yourself these questions.

a. Is the source reliable?

Each fact used in a publication needs to come from a reliable source. Authors who list their sources help make your research easier because you can check the source directly and you can make a determination whether that source has provided information in the past which turned out to be accurate. The more well-known the institution or research agency which generated the original information, the more likely it is that the information is reliable. Institutions and research agencies not only do primary research, they also tend to do peer reviews of information prior to its release, and many other interested parties carefully scrutinize their work once it has been released.

b. Is the source knowledgeable?

Look for sources which have credentials in the area of expertise from which the claim emanates. For example, in the case of medical claims, check with organizations and agencies like the National Institutes of Health or the Centers for Disease Control or individuals who have medical degrees. Look for years of related experience and published research. People who have worked at or studied a subject extensively have more understanding of their topic.

c. Is the source unbiased?

Independent laboratories and agencies are the most likely source for unbiased information. Who funds cited research projects? Unfortunately, funding often seems tied to the outcome of the research. Research funded by organizations with significant monetary stakes in the outcome of the research should be viewed with healthy skepticism.

If the author did not list his sources, then more work is required to determine whether the source was reliable. Assessing source reliability is most difficult when the source is listed as a “well-placed source” or “an anonymous source”, or some equally unspecific citing is given. In those cases, treat the information as possibly suspect. Two methods can be pursued at this point. Wait to see how events play out before deciding to treat the information as true or search for collaboration or refutation of the claim from other sources.

Search the Internet with care.

Just because you find something on the Internet does not make it true. Many blogs, newsletters, and articles are not well edited, not reviewed for accuracy, and do not follow journalistic standards. One of the most common mistakes is assuming that because something appears on the Internet, especially if it occurs multiple times, it is true. Since many authors just restate what they read somewhere else without checking the facts, readers can see multiple iterations of inaccurate information. Remember to verify the source. Find the originator of the information and assess their trustworthiness.

If you are researching political statements, you might wish to check FactCheck.org which specializes in researching the issues which appear on the political scene. Other websites which provide more consistently edited and reviewed information include Wikipedia, sites ending with “.gov”, and major newspapers.

Ask a Subject Matter Expert.

As an editor, I occasionally run across something for which it is difficult to find an answer. I turn to experts by searching on the Internet and then send an e-mail request for assistance. Depending on the subject, I might ask college professors, coaches, or whatever other category of expert applies. I provide a short description of my question and ask for their help. I usually send up to five requests which increases my chances of getting at least one response. This has been a successful strategy. I always send a “thank you”!

Ask a Research Librarian.

If you are at a loss for how to check a piece of information, ask your local research librarian. They are well-versed in research techniques and authoritative publications, government, and Internet sources and can refer you to appropriate material in their own reference section.

Check with the Library of Congress.

You can also use the vast resources of the Library of Congress to check on the accuracy of information. Their online “Ask a Librarian” program lets you submit a request for information and their librarians will research the issue and e-mail a response.

Fact checking is worth the effort. Editors will improve the trustworthiness of their publication by ensuring the facts are well-supported and accurate. Readers will be confident about understanding issues and making sound decisions when they know the facts presented are true.

About the Author

Celia Webb is President of Pilinut Press, Inc., publishers of advanced readers for children and ESL students. Check out www.pilinutpress.com for more free articles on developing reading-related skills, word games and puzzles, and activity sheets for the company’s entertaining and educational books.

By Andrew Carter

When you sit down and think about it, or even stand around and think about it (!), English words have seeped into the vocabulary of millions of people, thanks, in the main part, to the genius of marketing gurus over the past century. Not just English words, though – there’s a whole swathe of brand names that are truly international, aren’t there?

Product names – for example Coca Cola, Sony and Nokia; Car brands – Toyota, Nissan, Renault, Mercedes; Place names – London, Paris, New York; and how about Sushi, Hamburger, Karate, Brad Pitt, Titanic, Soccer, Microsoft and Marlboro? When faced with students in their early hours and days of an English As A Second Language course, using these words is a great confidence booster. They help get brains in gear – the cranial juices flowing!

Ask the class, or better still, SHOW the class a series of pictures of things which are internationally known – encourage them to speak out the names and words they see. The very best thing, with beginners is if the teacher says very little – merely encouraging words out by gesture and expression – then the students are searching for the words themselves (and they KNOW these) and getting quick results. When the words come – write them on the board.

Then the critical part – speak them out. The students are now hearing the words spoken in English. They are hearing English sounds for familiar words. They will see and hear mouth and lip shapes and sounds that may not be familiar to them, but which are wrapped around familiar words. They’ll have a go, and you’ll be setting foundations for the new English words they will learn in the coming weeks, using materials that they already have in their armoury!

It’s a really encouraging strategy for the teacher to employ. Whenever the student hears or comes across a word as the course progresses that he regards as ‘international’, get him to point the fact out. Then marvel at how many of the words we use every day really do span continents and cultures!

About the author

Andrew is a qualified TEFL (Teaching English as a Foreign Language) teacher, with 15 years experience of the global Automotive Industry as a Sales manager with an International component and systems supplier. For more information about learning English with Andrew at his home in the UK, visit the Lets Talk 2 website.

Sharon K Couzens de Hinojosa explains the benefits of learning the language of the country you’re teaching in.

When moving to another country, learning the language can mean adjusting to the lifestyle or remaining an outsider. There are several ways to learn a foreign language, just take a look at the ideas below.

Books with CDs
There are lots of books that come with CDs in order to learn the language. You can play the CDs on your way to work. Just remember to repeat the phrases aloud.

Media
Once you get a handle on the language, watching TV or movies. If possible, put closed captioning on as well, that way you can listening and read the words. If you don’t understand what was said, you might be able to read it and then understand.

Listening to the radio, both the news and songs will also help you get more accustomed to the language and its accents. And don’t forget about emailing, forums, newspapers, and chatting. Find someone who speaks the language you want to learn and try chatting or exchanging emails. Reading forums is a nice way to learn slang and casual conversation. You could also try joining a chat room in the local language and talk about things that interest you. Reading the newspaper whether the printed version or online is a great way to learn formal speech.

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Language partners
These are a great way to meet the locals. Try to find someone with your same level, but in English. Go out and have a coffee and spending half the time talking in English and half the time talking in the language you’re trying to learn. Or, you could find another foreigner and just spend the entire time trying to talk in the target language. You can talk about family, local news, or just practise reading aloud. Remember to correct each other’s pronunciation.

Post-its
Putting up little notes all over the house can help you learn about daily items. For example, on the door, write the word for door, on the mirror, do the same. Pretty soon, you’ll be able to name all the things around you.

Practise, practise, practise
Don’t give up. At first, it can be difficult to learn a language, but then you’ll get a grasp on it. You’ll find that you might reach a plateau after a while, but keep at it and you’ll find yourself learning more and more.

Read aloud
Just looking at the words in your books won’t help you when you have to have a conversation. Practise reading aloud in the target language. After a while, you’ll notice that the words come out faster, you’ll have less of an accent, and it will also increase your knowledge of grammar and vocabulary.

Stop translating
Although it may seem easier to think in English and then translate to the target language, it’s way too confusion, takes a long time, and some things simply don’t translate. Make a point of thinking in the language you’re using.

You’re getting there!
With a bit of time and effort, you’ll be able to make a lot of practise in the language you’re trying to learn and this will help you adjust more to your host country and open up a whole new world.

About the author
Sharon K Couzens de Hinojosa is the creator and writer for TEFL Tips, The LA Job List, and The Ultimate Peru List. She enjoys answering people’s questions about TEFLing and Peru.

By M.Enamul Hoque

During the last few decades a continuing but significant move has taken place, resulting in less emphasis on teachers and teaching and greater stress on learners and learning.

This article provides an overview of key issues concerning the use of language learning strategies (LLS) in second and foreign language (L2/FL) learning and teaching

Weinstein and Mayer (1986) defined learning strategies (LS) broadly as “behaviours and thoughts that a learner engages in during learning” which are “intended to influence the learner’s encoding process”. Later Mayer (1988) more specifically defined LS as “behaviours of a learner that are intended to influence how the learner processes information”.

A good number of definitions and meanings have been used for Language learning strategies (LLS) by key figures in the field. Tarone (1983) defined a Learning strategy as “an attempt to develop linguistic and sociolinguistic competence in the target language — to incorporate these into one’s interlanguage competence”. Rubin (1987) suggests that Learning strategies “are strategies which contribute to the development of the language system which the learner constructs and affect learning directly”. O’Malley and Chamot (1990) defined Learning Strategies as “the special thoughts or behaviours that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn, or retain new information”. Oxford (1990) views that language learning strategies are the specific actions, behaviours, steps, or techniques that students (often intentionally) use to improve their progress in developing language skills. These strategies can facilitate the internalization, storage, retrieval, or use of the new language. Strategies are tools for the self-directed involvement necessary for developing communicative ability. At the same time, we should note that LLS are distinct from learning styles, which refer more broadly to a learner’s “natural, habitual, and preferred way(s) of absorbing, processing, and retaining new information and skills” Reid (1995), though there appears to be an obvious relationship between one’s language learning style and his or her usual or preferred language learning strategies.

There are a number of basic characteristics in the generally accepted view of LLS.

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• First, LLS are learner generated; they are steps taken by language learners.

• Second, LLS enhance language learning and help develop language competence, as reflected in the learner’s skills in listening, speaking, reading, or writing the L2 or FL.

• Third, LLS may be visible (behaviours, steps, techniques, etc.) or unseen (thoughts, mental processes).

Cohen (1990) insists that only conscious strategies are LLS, and that there must be a choice involved on the part of the learner. Transfer of a strategy from one language or language skill to another is a related goal of LLS, as Pearson (1988) and Skehan (1989) have discussed. In her teacher-oriented text, Oxford summarises her view of LLS by listing twelve key features. In addition to the characteristics noted above, Skehan states that LLS:

• allow learners to become more self-directed

• expand the role of language teachers

• are problem-oriented

• involve many aspects, not just the cognitive

• can be taught

• are flexible

• are influenced by a variety of factors

Within ‘communicative’ approaches to language teaching a key goal is for the learner to develop communicative competence in the target L2/FL, and LLS can help students in doing so. Communication strategies are used by speakers intentionally and consciously in order to cope with difficulties in communicating in a L2/FL.

In addition to developing students’ communicative competence, LLS are important because research suggests that training students to use LLS can help them become better language learners. Early research on ‘good language learners’ by Naiman, Frohlich, Stern, and Todesco (1978, 1996), Rubin (1975), and Stern (1975) suggested a number of positive strategies that such students employ, ranging from using an active task approach in and monitoring one’s L2/FL performance to listening to the radio in the L2/FL and speaking with native speakers.

A study by O’Malley and Chamot (1990) also suggests that effective L2/FL learners are aware of the LLS they use and why they use them. Graham’s (1997) work in French further indicates that L2/FL teachers can help students understand good LLS and should train them to develop and use them.

With the above background on Learning Strategies and some of the related literature, this section provides an overview of how LLS and LLS training have been or may be used in the classroom, and briefly describes a three step approach to implementing LLS training in the L2/FL classroom.

LLS and LLS training may be integrated into a variety of classes for L2/FL students. One type of course that appears to be becoming more popular, especially in intensive English programmes, is one focusing on the language learning process itself.

It is crucial for teachers to study their teaching context, paying special attention to their students, their materials, and their own teaching. If they are going to train their students in using LLS, it is crucial to know something about these individuals, their interests, motivations, learning styles, etc. By observing their behaviour in class, for example, one will be able to see what LLS they already appear to be using. Do they often ask for clarification, verification, or correction, as discussed briefly above? Do they co-operate with their peers or seem to have much contact outside of class with proficient L2/FL users? Beyond observation, however, one can prepare a short questionnaire that students can fill in at the beginning of a course, describing themselves and their language learning.

Talking to students informally before or after class, or more formally interviewing select students about these topics can also provide a lot of information about one’s students, their goals, motivations, and LLS, and their understanding of the particular course being taught.

Beyond the students, however, one’s teaching materials are also important in considering LLS and LLS training. Textbooks, for example, should be analyzed to see whether they already include LLS or LLS training. Working with other language, learner improves their listening and speaking skills. Audiotapes, videotapes, hand-outs, and other materials for the course at hand should also be examined for LLS or for specific ways that LLS training might be implemented in using them. Perhaps teachers will be surprised to find many LLS incorporated into their materials, with more possibilities than they had imagined. If not, they might look for new texts or other teaching materials that do provide such opportunities.

After teachers have studied their teaching context, begin to focus on specific LLS in their regular teaching that are relevant to learners, materials, and teaching style. If teachers have found 10 different LLS for writing explicitly used in your text, for example, they could highlight these as they go through the course, giving students clear examples.

Graham (1997) declares, LLS training “needs to be integrated into students’ regular classes if they are going to appreciate their relevance for language learning tasks; students need to constantly monitor and evaluate the strategies they develop and use; and they need to be aware of the nature, function and importance of such strategies” . Whether it is a specific conversation, reading, writing, or other class, an organized and informed focus on LLS and LLS training will help students learn and provide more opportunities for them to take responsibility for their learning.

As Graham suggests, “those teachers who have thought carefully about how they learned a language, about which strategies are most appropriate for which tasks, are more likely to be successful in developing ’strategic competence’ in their students” (p. 170). Beyond contemplating one’s own language learning, it is also crucial to reflect on one’s LLS training and teaching in the classroom. After each class, for example, one might ponder the effectiveness of the lesson and the role of LLS and LLS training within it. An informal log of such reflections and one’s personal assessment of the class, either in a notebook or on the actual lesson plans, might be used later to reflect on LLS training in the course as a whole after its completion.

In addition to the teacher’s own reflections, it is essential to encourage learner reflection, both during and after the LLS training in the class or course.

In an interesting action research study involving “guided reflection” As Graham (170) declares, “For learners, a vital component of self-directed learning lies in the on-going evaluation of the methods, they have employed on tasks and of their achievements within the…programme” Whatever the context or method, it is important for L2/FL learners to have the chance to reflect on their language learning and LLS use.

The first, and most important, concerns the professionalism of teachers who use LLS and LLS training in their work. As Davis (1997) has aptly noted, “our actions speak louder than words”, and it is therefore important for professionals who use LLS training to also model such strategies both within their classroom teaching and, especially in EFL contexts, in their own FL learning. Furthermore, LLS obviously involve individuals’ unique cognitive, social, and affective learning styles and strategies. As an educator I am interested in helping my students learn and reflect on their learning, but I also question the tone and motivation reflected in some of the LLS literature. Oxford (1990a), for example, seems to describe many of my Japanese EFL students when she writes:

Motivation is a key concern both for teachers and students. Yet while teachers hope to motivate our students and enhance their learning, professionally we must be very clear not to manipulate them in the process, recognising that ultimately learning is the student’s responsibility. If our teaching is appropriate and learner-centred, we will not manipulate our students as we encourage them to develop and use their own LLS. Instead we will take learners’ motivations and learning styles into account as we teach in order for them to improve their L2/FL skills and LLS.

The second reflection pertains to the integration of LLS into both language learning/teaching theory and curriculum. The focus of this article is largely practical, noting why LLS are useful and how they can or might be included in regular L2/FL classes.

The related challenge, is how to integrate LLS into our L2/FL curriculum, especially in places like Bangladesh where “learner-centred” approaches or materials may not be implemented very easily. Using texts which incorporate LLS training, such as those in the Tapestry series, remains difficult in FL contexts when they are mainly oriented to L2 ones. Many FL teachers include LLS and LLS training in the FL curriculum of their regular, everyday language (as opposed to content) classes. This final point brings us to this and other questions for future LLS research.

The article has provided a brief overview of Language Learning Strategies (LLS) by examining their background and summarizing the relevant literature. It has also sketched out some ways that LLS training has been used and offered a three step approach for teachers to consider in implementing it within their own L2/FL classes. It has also upheld two important issues, posed questions for further LLS study, and noted a number of contacts that readers may use in networking on LLS in L2/FL education.

Canale, M., & Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics, 1(1), 1-47.

Cohen, A. (1990). Language Learning: Insights for Learners, Teachers, and Researchers. New York: Newbury House.

Ellis, G., & Sinclair, B. (1989). Learning to Learn English: A Course in Learner Training. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Ellis, R. (1994). The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Freeman, D., & Richards, J. (Eds.). (1996). Teacher Learning in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Gardner, D., & Miller, L. (Eds.). (1996). Tasks for Independent Language Learning. Alexandria, VA: TESOL.

Graham, S. (1997). Effective Language Learning. Clevedon, Avon: Multilingual

Nunan, D. (1995). Closing the gap between learning and instruction. TESOL Quarterly, 29(1), 133-158.

Nunan, D. (1996). Learner strategy training in the classroom: An action research study. TESOL Journal, 6(1), 35-41.

Offner, M. (1997). Teaching English conversation in Japan: Teaching how to learn. The Internet TESL Journal [on-line serial], 3(3) [March 1997].

O’Malley, J.M., & Chamot, A. (1990). Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Oxford, R. (1990). Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know. New York: Newbury House.

Skehan, P. (1989). Language learning strategies (Chapter 5). Individual Differences in Second-Language Learning (pp. 73- 99). London: Edward Arnold.

Tarone, E. (1983). Some thoughts on the notion of ‘communication stategy’. In C. Faerch & G. Kasper (Eds.), Strategies in Interlanguage Communication (pp. 61-74). London: Longman.

About the author

M.Enamul Hoque has been an English language teacher for over 15 years in different Government institutes of Bangladesh. He is an Instructor of ELT in the Education and Training Wing, Ministry of Environment and Forest. He has MA in English from Dhaka University, and M.Phil in Applied Linguistics and ELT from the Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka, Bangladesh. He has published widely on a variety of topics and is particularly interested in English language teaching and applied linguistics.

By Dev Sri

Long ago, there was a time, when parents told children to read slowly and loudly to understand everything they read.

A lot of things have changed. Today’s children have bigger syllabi to learn. Now, learning experts and teachers ask students to read faster and grasp important points.

Here are a few tips for students who have a lot to learn, but very little time.

Make a Timetable

Your timetable should have separate time for eating, playing games, exercise, reading newspaper and study materials. You should not only make a timetable, but also should stick to it.

Give priority to leisure and games in the afternoon, but separate early morning time for studies. Make sure you read all the class notes before you go to bed.

While allotting time to different subjects, allot more time to difficult subjects. You need only less time for the subjects that are easier for you to learn.

Taking Notes

Taking notes is an important part of learning. You need to take lecture notes (classroom notes) and notes from your textbook.

- Go through the lessons on the day before your teacher would teach it in the class. This gives you an idea of what to expect.

- Write down important ideas as bullet points. One word or a phrase is enough to include an idea.

- Give prominence to important ideas by underlining them in your notes.

- Leave lot of space in each face of paper. This will help you add new points later.

- Organize your notes into separate files. Each subject should have a different file. Label the outer page of the file with name of the subject and your teacher. You should also neatly organize each file according to chapters and topics.

- Read the notes (important points) in the night, before going to bed. Read only once. This helps you memorize the lessons clearly.

- While taking notes from a book, label the name of the book and author. Also, note the page number next to your notes. It makes it easy for you to refer to the book three or six months later.

Reading Techniques

You need to read fast and grasp more things. Here are some pointers to fast reading.

- Note the name of the book and its author in the reading log.

- Take a quick look from cover to cover to identify the important chapters.

- Take a quick look over the chapter, identify the important points, and note them down.

- Read the lesson fast. To increase the speed of learning, pass your eyes through the top of the letters and not through the centre. For example, while reading, pass your eyes through the area where the dot above the letter i appears and not through the loop of the letter o.

- Don’t take notes while reading.

- Don’t go back to read a word or a sentence. If you don’t get the idea of the subject, you can come back to the sentence after you finish reading the chapter. Never look up a dictionary while in the middle of reading a chapter. Refer dictionary only if you don’t automatically understand the meaning of a word after finishing the paragraph and the chapter.

- Note down the points you remember. Now check if you have taken all the important points, with another fast reading.

How to increase memory

Try to understand completely what you read or hear.

Repeat what you hear or read in your mind.

Make notes of what you learn at school or read from books. A single word can help you remember a whole idea.

Give number to the points.

Don’t try to bring to memory all the things you have learned. Learn the technique of bringing to memory one thing at a time.

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How to increase concentration

Mental concentration is important to memory and better learning.

Stick to your reading timetable. You should separate a specific place and specific time of the day for reading.

Sit erect. It increases your concentration.

Don’t allow disturbances like phone calls, music etc while reading.

Concentrate on the lessons you read. Don’t think about the next book you have to read while you are reading a book. A better way is to make an order of the books and lessons to read and arrange them in order before you start reading.

Immediately after reading a paragraph, try to recall the idea from that paragraph. This helps you concentrate more on your reading.

Ideal conditions for reading/learning

A silent location that you don’t use for sleeping, eating or leisure purposes is the most ideal condition for reading.

Install a fluorescent tube light in the reading room. This helps mild light to fall evenly all over the room. Don’t sit in the darkness while reading. If you use table lamp, arrange it towards your left if you are a right-hander.

Arrange the papers, pencils, boards and books on the table before you start reading.

Never try to read while you are tired or ill.

Eat healthy food rich in carbohydrates, proteins and fibres. Replace fast food, pizza, burger, chocolates, ice creams, etc with fresh fruits, whole grain food items (like chapatti), milk, fruit juices, etc.

Exercise daily. Swimming, cycling and jogging are good for students. Practise yoga. It increases concentration and willpower.

Don’t watch TV. Instead, play some games in the outdoors. While TV makes you dumb, the games make you smarter.

Read lot of books. Read classic stories, fables (like Aesop fables, Panchatantra stories, etc), etc. Don’t spend too much time on comic cartoons.

About The Author

Dev Sri provides insider information about Kerala Ayurvedic practices at http://keralaayurvedics.com/